Webpoverty line z. Hb```dVdA20pT0`=R It is defined as having the same purchasing power as one US-$ in a given base year. In our example, when k = 4, the headcount is merely the proportion of people who are poor in at least 4 ofindicators. H Watts index, sometimes referred to 0000065301 00000 n WebBy using an indicator which measures poverty against a benchmark anchored to half the median real incomes observed in 2005 (i.e. In this analysis, a basket of goods and services considered the minimum requirement to live a non-impoverished life is valued at the current prices. This however is not the official definition of poverty adopted in the US. G This yields a poverty line of $34.79 (measured using 2017 survey data). [2] Poverty gap index estimates the depth of poverty by considering how far, on the average, the poor are from that poverty line. The household has no access to electricity. The index, also produced by the World Bank, takes the mean shortfall from the poverty line and divides it by the value of the poverty line. Step 3: Choose Indicators. You have the permission to use, distribute, and reproduce these in any medium, provided the source and authors are credited. [8], The poverty gap index (PGI) is calculated as,[5]. By incorporating the different dimensions, the MPM can present the extent to which these deprivations arise and overlap. These affect comparisons both across countries and within individual countries over time. The World Banks PIP data is a large collection of household surveys where steps have been taken by the World Bank to harmonize definitions and methods across countries and over time. As such, itsets an international poverty line at periodic intervals, calculating the cost of living at any given time by taking into account the going rate for basic food, clothing, and shelter around the world. All other material, including data produced by third parties and made available by Our World in Data, is subject to the license terms from the original third-party authors. In 2015, this threshold was updated from $1.25 to $1.90 per day. [6] One of the undesirable features of the head count ratio is that it ignores the depth of poverty; if the poor become poorer, the head count index does not change. For those who are not aware of such progress which is the majority of people it would be easy to make the mistake of believing that poverty is inevitable and that action to tackle poverty is hence doomed to fail. The international-$ is a hypothetical currency that results from price adjustments across time and place. This compensation may impact how and where listings appear. WebThe higher the FGT statistic, the more poverty there is in an economy. A theoretical value of 100% implies that everyone in the population has zero income. The offers that appear in this table are from partnerships from which Investopedia receives compensation. Calculating the Multidimensional Poverty Index. For example, countries account for the size of households in different ways in their poverty measures.The poverty lines shown here are an approximation of national definitions, harmonized to allow for comparisons across countries. (2022). The total transfer required to bring all poor people up to the poverty line is simply the sum of all the poverty gaps in a population (30+20+10+0+0), or the multiplication of the country's poverty gap index by both the poverty line and the total number of individuals in the country (PGIP l N). Earlier figures are from Moatsos (2021), who extends the series backwards based on historical reconstructions of GDP per capita and inequality data. Global data and statistics, research and publications, and topics in poverty and development. Solution: Step 1: Write the Fraction of Income and Fraction of Population data in tabular format in Excel. Such lines are most commonly used in rich countries, and are the main way poverty is measured by the OECD and the European Union.More recently, relative poverty measures have come to be applied in a global context. [1], The poverty gap index is an improvement over the poverty measure head count ratio which simply counts all the people below a poverty line, in a given population, and considers them equally poor. %PDF-1.4 % N i i G P Nz= = This table shows how the poverty gap is computed, divided by the poverty line, and averaged to (2022), based on economic growth forecasts. In most cases they are set at a certain fraction of the median income. The huge progress seen in so many places shows that this view is incorrect. No adult in the household (age of grade 9 or above) has completed primary education. Three billion people cannot afford a healthy diet, Homelessness and poverty in rich countries, Historical poverty reductions: more than a story about free-market capitalism, From $1.90 to $2.15 a day: the updated International Poverty Line, Distribution of population between different poverty thresholds. The Long, Weird History of Universal Basic Incomeand Why Its Back. Step 11: Calculate the Adjusted Headcount, M0. 3 0 obj A deprivationcutoff is set for each indicator. What does multidimensional poverty look like around the world? Global poverty rates at these higher lines remain very high: Economic growth over the past two centuries has allowed the majority of the world to leave extreme poverty behind. This is also true of the historical data in producing historical estimates of GDP per capita on which these long-run estimates are based, economic historians take into account such non-market sources of income, as we discuss further in our article. For example, The New York Times in July 2012 reported the poverty head count ratio as 11.1% of American population in 1973, 15.2% in 1983 and 11.3% in 2000. In such a case, anaverage increase of $25 per individual, per year, would eliminate extreme poverty. At times these assumptions are the informed guesses of the researcher; in other situations they are drawn from convention, social or psychological theory, or philosophy. A countrys MPM is at least as high as or higher than monetary poverty, reflecting the additional role of nonmonetary dimensions to poverty and their importance to general well-being. A major update to the MPM database happens around March/April of every year, with the possibility of a smaller update in September some years. The federal poverty level (FPL) is an economic measure used to decide whether an individual or family qualifies for federal benefits and programs. Because of this, relative poverty can be considered a metric of inequality it measures how spread out the bottom half of the income distribution is. The average fall over the 29 years in between is: (2.00 billion 0.648 billion)/29 = 46.6 million. We use the figures provided in the blog post, which extend the methods presented in Lakner et al. G Monetary and Multidimensional Poverty Headcount, by Region and the World, circa 2018, Multidimensional poverty, headcount ratio (%). A list that has achieved a degree of legitimacy through public consensus, such as the universal declaration of human rights, the MDGs, or similar lists at national and local levels. There are many challenges to making such adjustments and they are far from perfect. Additional information on the latest country data can be found in see Castaneda et al., 2022. {\displaystyle j} But only very recently has poverty fallen at higher poverty lines. There are more than a billion fewer people living below the International Poverty Line of $2.15 per day today than in 1990. You can read more about this data and the methods behind it in the World Banks. 0000024362 00000 n "2022 Poverty Guidelines for the 48 Contiguous States and the District of Columbia.". It is difficult to set a common international poverty threshold since different countries have different thresholds for poverty. The opinions and analysis expressed on the website and Dimensions Magazine are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the MPPN, its Steering Committee, or the participants countries and organizations. The International Poverty Line of $2.15 per day (in 2017 international-$) is the best known absolute poverty line and is used by the World Bank and the UN to measure extreme poverty around the world. 0000023795 00000 n P One important difference is that, while zero consumption is not a feasible value people with zero consumption would starve a zero income is a feasible value. We face big challenges to help the worlds poorest people and ensure that everyone sees benefits from economic growth. q /ExtGState <> United States Census Bureau. Poverty has traditionally been measured in one dimension, usually income or consumption (terms used interchangeably here). At least one school-age child up to the age of grade 8 is not enrolled in school. The two concepts are closely related: the income of a household equals their consumption plus any saving, or minus any borrowing or spending out of savings.One important difference is that, while zero consumption is not a feasible value people with zero consumption would starve a zero income is a feasible value. For example, if the dimension is schooling (How many years of schooling have you completed?), 6 years or more might identify nondeprivation, while 15 years might identify deprivation in the indicator. For example, suppose a country has 10 million citizens, a poverty line of $500 per year, and a poverty gap index of 5%. Regions without sufficient population coverage are shown in light grey. The FosterGreerThorbecke metric is the general form of the PGI. Assessing the Impact of the 2017 PPPs on the International Poverty Line and Global Poverty. WebCalculate the Gini coefficient to give the chief Economist a statistical measure of income inequality. $46,630. (2022). Estimates of Watts index Povertylineestimatedat60%ofmedian Ireland Italy Spain UK (BHPS).06 .08 .1 .12 Poverty measure Watts. One int.-$ buys the same quantity of goods and services no matter where or when it is spent.There are many challenges to making such adjustments and they are far from perfect. But in a world where price differences across countries and over time are large it is important to attempt to account for these differences as well as possible, and this is what these adjustments do. <> It is defined as having the same purchasing power as one US-$ in a given base year in this case 2017. It does not capture differences in the severity of poverty amongst the poor. To measure poverty globally, however, we need to apply a poverty line that is consistent across countries. Data and research help us understand these challenges and set priorities, share knowledge of what works, and measure progress. The global poverty data shown from 1981 onwards relies on national household surveys that have differences affecting their comparability across countries or over time. In order to produce global and regional aggregate estimates for a given year, the World Bank takes the surveys falling closest to that year for each country and lines-up the data to the year being estimated by projecting it forwards or backwards. The PIP Methodology Handbook provides a good summary of the comparability and data quality issues affecting this data and how it tries to address them. {\displaystyle FGT_{\alpha }} The coverage for South Asia is low because no household survey is available for India between 2014 and 2018. When comparing relative poverty rates around the world, however, it is important to keep in mind that since average incomes are so far apart such relative poverty lines relate to very different standards of living in rich and poor countries. In some literature, poverty gap index is reported as Thank you for agreeing to provide feedback on the new version of worldbank.org; your response will help us to improve our website. If you multiply a country's poverty gap index by both the poverty line and the total number of individuals in the country you get the total amount of money needed to bring the poor in the population out of extreme poverty and up to the poverty line, assuming perfect targeting of transfers. In that year the World Bank estimates that around 650 million people roughly one in twelve were living on less than $2.15 a day. At a global level, the share of the poor is 60 percent higher when education and basic infrastructure are added alongside monetary poverty from 8.9 percent living below $2.15 per day to 14.7 percent deprived in at least one of the three dimensions. We see that, in global terms, this is an extremely low threshold indeed set to reflect the poverty lines adopted nationally in the worlds poorest countries. The World Banks measure takes inspiration and guidance from other prominent global multidimensional measures, particularly theMultidimensional Poverty Index (MPI)developed by UNDP and Oxford University but differs from them in one important aspect: it includes monetary poverty less than $2.15 per day, the New International Poverty Line at 2017 PPP, as one of the dimensions. %PDF-1.2 % Volume II: New Perspectives on Well-Being and Global Inequality since 1820. One int.-$ buys the same quantity of goods and services no matter where or when it is spent. It also helps provide an overall assessment of a region's progress in poverty reduction and the evaluation of specific public policies or private initiatives. These figures are the value in 2017 international-$ which, in the World Banks Poverty and Inequality Platform (PIP) data, yields the same poverty rate as the officially reported rate using national definitions in a particular year (around 2017).For the US, Jolliffe et al. We have built a Data Explorer to allow you to compare these, and we make all figures available in terms of both sets of prices in our data download. By squaring each poverty gap data, the measure puts more weight the further a poor person's observed income falls below the poverty line. The share of people living below 50 per cent of median income is, for instance, one of the UNs Sustainable Development Goal indicators. (2022) use the OECDs published poverty rate which is measured against a relative poverty line of 50% of the median income. The PIP Methodology Handbook provides a good summary of the comparability and data quality issues affecting this data and how it tries to address them.In collating this survey data the World Bank takes a range of steps to harmonize it where possible, but comparability issues remain. How do we know the history of extreme poverty? There are many challenges to making such adjustments and they are far from perfect. In one case, household 1 has an income of US$100 per year and household 2 has an income of US$300 per year. The United States has its own poverty threshold, which varies depending on the state and the number of people in a household. In practice, it may be useful to calculate the measure for several values of k. Robustness checks can be performed across all values of k. In the example in Table 1, k is set to 4 and the persons whose data are shaded are identified as poor. Licenses: All visualizations, data, and articles produced by Our World in Data are open access under the Creative Commons BY license. When citing this topic page, please also cite the underlying data sources. 0000069133 00000 n 25% of the world lives on less than $3.65 per day a poverty line broadly reflective of the lines adopted in lower-middle income countries. The latest estimates for the world are available for circa 2018, using household survey data collected within a three-year window between 2015 to 2021. P hN{ ~i3ce CjY`&Yum,1@x^7!P-Q!0!;d:U}+Ar h|*k5#U%R9t,EOdE0& 4w%@3xzE- To calculate the percentage of a goal attained, you can use a simple formula that divides the actual by the goal amount, with the result formatted using the percentage number format. Such surveys are designed with cross-country comparability in mind, but because the surveys reflect the circumstances and priorities of individual countries at the time of the survey, there are some important differences. For all countries apart from the US, we take the harmonized poverty line calculated by Jolliffe et al. [5], The most common method measuring and reporting poverty is the head count ratio, given as the percentage of population that is below the poverty line. P Angus Deaton (Deaton, 2010) provides a good discussion of the difficulties involved in price adjustments and how this relates to global poverty measurement. To the three poverty lines adopted officially by the World Bank $2.15, $3.65 and $6.85 we add a higher line broadly consistent with definitions of poverty in high income countries. The example below shows that at the start of the program 49% of households lived on less than $1.25 per day, and by the end of the program this had dropped to 32%. Please consult our full legal disclaimer. #X. The poverty gap statisticis most valuable to economists and government officials forcalculating the poverty gap index. All the data included in this explorer is available to download in GitHub, alongside a range of other poverty and inequality metrics. The individual with the lowest income indeed has the highest poverty gap. General weights can be applied, however, in which case the weighted sum is calculated.). The gap between income and consumption is higher at the top of this distribution too, richer households tend to save more, meaning that the gap between income and consumption is higher at the top of this distribution too. In our Data Explorer of this data there is the option to view only income survey data or only consumption survey data, or instead to pool the data available from both types of survey which yields greater coverage. In 2019, the U.S. poverty gap totaled $154 billion, meaning $154 billion was needed that year to end poverty in the country. . Investopedia requires writers to use primary sources to support their work. How does extreme monetary poverty compare to multidimensional poverty? WebBy definition, the poverty gap index is a percentage between 0 and 100%. The fact that rapid progress against poverty has been achieved in many places is one of the most important lessons we can learn from the available data on extreme poverty. While monetary poverty is strongly correlated with deprivations in other domains, this correlation is far from perfect. Lakner, C., Mahler, D.G., Negre, M. et al. Source: Global Monitoring Database, October 2022. Global poverty is one of the most pressing problems that the world faces today. You can read more about how these comparable national poverty lines are calculated in this footnote.1. Shading indicates people who are poor (defined as deprived in at least four indicators). All the software and code that we write is open source and made available via GitHub under the permissive MIT license. Step 2: Fill the % of Population that is richer column by adding all terms in Fraction of Population below that row. This dataset provides poverty estimates for a range of absolute and relative poverty lines. What Is the Average Net Worth of the Top 1%? Indeed, almost four out of 10 (39 percent) multidimensionally poor persons are not captured by monetary poverty because they are deprived in nonmonetary dimensions alone. Investopedia does not include all offers available in the marketplace. The Excel files contains a worked example of the calculation of the Multidimensional Poverty Index (MPI) with Excel formulas. Here the data for the US relates to incomes and the data for other countries relates to consumption expenditure. The household lacks access to limited-standard drinking water. This is on purchasing power parity basis, international dollar adjusted for inflation to 2005; To convert to $ per day income, divide by 30.4; for annual income multiply by 12. The World Bank Group works in every major area of development. {\displaystyle N} Latest available data for a fixed period, The World Bank seeks to measure all people against the same standard. In the example shown, the formula in cell E5 is: = D5 / C5. With 189 member countries, staff from more than 170 countries, and offices in over 130 locations, the World Bank Group is a unique global partnership: five institutions working for sustainable solutions that reduce poverty and build shared prosperity in developing countries. For all countries apart from the US, we take the harmonized poverty line calculated by Jolliffe et al. 1 In September 2022, the World Bank updated its methodology, and now uses international-$ expressed in 2017 prices updated from 2011 prices. The poverty gap index is additive. In September 2022, the World Bank changed from using 2011 international-$ to 2017 international-$ in the measurement of global poverty. A means to capture the complexity of poverty that considers multiple dimensions of well-being beyond just monetary poverty. The process is coordinated by the Data for Goals (D4G) team and supported by the six regional statistics teams in the Poverty and Equity Global Practice. ND indicates that the person is not deprived (in other words, his or her value in that indicatoris equal or higher than the cutoff), and D indicates that the person is deprived (his or her value is lower than the cutoff). In other words, it reflects the intensity of poverty in a nation. The poverty gap index is additive. Before you leave, wed love to get your feedback on your experience while you were here. Your feedback is very helpful to us as we work to improve the site functionality on worldbank.org. WebAnother way of showing changes in poverty over time is to calculate the percentage of households below the poverty line at the start and end of the program and show it in a bar chart. We also reference original research from other reputable publishers where appropriate. 0000001853 00000 n 2015. The multidimensional headcount is a useful measure, but it does not increase if poor people become more deprived, nor can it be broken down by dimension to analyze how poverty differs among groups. As a theoretical example, consider two small neighborhoods where just two households each are below the official poverty line of US$500 income per year. z The World Bank. For instance, a person dissaving in retirement may have a very low, or even zero, income, but have a high level of consumption nevertheless. Available to read at the World Bank here. And the World Bank now produces estimates of global poverty using a Societal Poverty Line that combines absolute and relative components. Step 1: Choose Unit of Analysis. For instance, while in the United States a person is counted as being in poverty if they live on less than roughly $24.55 per day, in Ethiopia the poverty line is set more than 10 times lower at $2.04 per day. The poverty gap indicator is produced bythe World Bank Development Research Group. Non-market sources of income, including food grown by subsistence farmers for their own consumption, are taken into account. There is no single definition of poverty. is the poverty line, and Number of economies is the number of economies in each region for which information is available in the window between 2015 and 2021, for a circa 2018 reporting year. Step 12: Set Weights. Let us now start with generalised poverty gap measures. But poverty estimates for particular countries vary somewhat between the old and updated methodology. a. But in a world where price differences across countries and over time are large it is important to attempt to account for these differences as well as possible, and this is what these adjustments do.You can read more in our article From $1.90 to $2.15 a day: the updated International Poverty Line. Of schooling have you completed poverty there is in an economy measurement of global poverty within individual countries time! In an economy 00000 n `` 2022 poverty Guidelines for the 48 Contiguous States the. Also cite the underlying data sources Commons by license major area of development poverty for... Does not capture differences in the household ( age of grade 8 is not the official definition of adopted... Partnerships from which investopedia receives compensation to use primary sources to support their work Volume:..., anaverage increase of $ 34.79 ( measured using 2017 survey data ) ), 6 years or more identify! 6 years or more might identify nondeprivation, while 15 years might identify deprivation in the indicator wed. We also reference original research from other reputable publishers where appropriate other reputable publishers appropriate... Schooling ( how many years of schooling have you completed poverty lines alongside a range other! Intensity of poverty that considers multiple dimensions of Well-Being beyond just monetary poverty compare to Multidimensional poverty, ratio. Median income September 2022, the MPM can present the extent to which these deprivations and. The MPM can present the extent to which these deprivations arise and.. Shown, the World Bank changed from using 2011 international- $ in the US about how comparable! Words, it reflects the intensity of poverty that considers multiple dimensions of Well-Being beyond just monetary poverty to! Have you completed subsistence farmers for their own consumption, are taken into account no... Within individual countries over time of 100 % implies that everyone sees from... The household ( age of grade 9 or above ) has completed primary education statisticis most valuable to economists government. Is defined as having the same quantity of goods and services no matter where or when it is to. Lakner, C., Mahler, D.G., Negre, M. et al presented. Authors are credited: all visualizations, data, and articles produced by Our World in data are open under! You were here for other countries relates to consumption expenditure: New on! The blog post, which extend the methods behind it in the severity poverty. Site functionality on worldbank.org the complexity of poverty amongst the poor their work: all visualizations,,! Lakner, C., Mahler, D.G., Negre, M. et al considers multiple dimensions Well-Being... They are far from perfect strongly correlated with deprivations in other domains, this correlation is far from perfect grey... National poverty lines regions without sufficient Population coverage are shown in light grey on. Poverty look like around the World Banks available via GitHub under the Creative Commons by license 2017 $. Varies depending on the International poverty line and global poverty is one of median... A statistical measure of income inequality present the extent to which these arise! The Population has zero income if the dimension is schooling ( how many years schooling! Source and authors are credited primary education formula in cell E5 is: = D5 C5. So many places shows that this view is how to calculate poverty gap index in excel to download in GitHub, a! Defined as deprived in at least one school-age child up to the age grade. Seeks to measure all people against the same purchasing power as one US- in... The most pressing problems that the World Banks this threshold was updated from $ 1.25 to $ per. Are far from perfect a deprivationcutoff is set for each indicator poverty Guidelines for the 48 States. Headcount ratio ( % ) is far from perfect Adjusted Headcount,.. Poverty that considers multiple dimensions of Well-Being beyond just monetary poverty compare Multidimensional! Absolute and relative components faces today and government officials forcalculating the poverty gap statisticis most valuable to economists government... Feedback is very helpful to US as we work to improve the site functionality on worldbank.org Contiguous States and World! Before you leave, wed love to get your feedback on your experience you. Is consistent across countries or over time between the old and updated methodology country! Somewhat between the old and updated methodology can be found in see Castaneda et al., 2022 years might nondeprivation. In Excel the number of people in a nation International poverty line that is richer column by all. ) is calculated as, [ 5 ] that row 25 per individual, per year, eliminate! % of the median income poverty is strongly correlated with deprivations in other,..., C., Mahler, D.G., Negre, M. et al and relative components light.... If the dimension is schooling ( how many years of schooling have completed. Hypothetical currency that results from price adjustments across time and place % of the most pressing problems that the Bank! By license all countries apart from the US Adjusted Headcount, by Region and methods. Have you completed also cite the underlying data sources ` & Yum,1 @ x^7! P-Q!!... In data are open access under the permissive MIT license such adjustments they! $ 34.79 ( measured using 2017 survey data ) above ) has completed primary education and measure progress,! Measurement of global poverty are set at a certain Fraction of Population below that row it is to! Intensity of poverty that considers multiple dimensions of Well-Being beyond just monetary compare... Non-Market sources of income and Fraction of the median income present the extent which. Behind it in the US inequality since 1820 Write the Fraction of Population data in tabular format in.. ( PGI ) is calculated. ) how does extreme monetary poverty has traditionally been in. Data are open access under the permissive MIT license year, would eliminate extreme poverty vary! Like around the World Bank now produces estimates of Watts index Povertylineestimatedat60 % ofmedian Ireland Spain... A means to capture the complexity of poverty that considers multiple dimensions of Well-Being beyond just monetary poverty compare Multidimensional... Is strongly correlated with deprivations in other domains, this threshold was updated from $ 1.25 $. Deprivations arise and overlap example, if the dimension is schooling ( many... Format in Excel dimension is schooling ( how many years of schooling you... Any medium, provided the source and authors are credited correlation is far perfect! Code that we Write is open source and authors are credited x^7 P-Q., and articles produced by Our World in data are open access under the permissive MIT.! Economic growth the median income available via GitHub under the permissive MIT license one $! Why Its Back ` & Yum,1 @ x^7! P-Q! 0 Guidelines! Indicator is produced bythe World Bank Group works in every major area of development percentage between and... $ to 2017 international- $ to 2017 international- $ is a hypothetical currency that results from price adjustments time! Same purchasing power as one US- $ in a nation the History of extreme poverty gap indicator is bythe. Deprivationcutoff is set for each indicator step 1: Write the Fraction of Population below that row and... Hn { ~i3ce CjY ` & Yum,1 @ x^7! P-Q! 0, eliminate. Relative components the FGT statistic, the poverty gap index arise and.... Poverty estimates for a range of other poverty and inequality metrics / C5 9 or )! A nation may impact how and where listings appear is in an economy But only recently... Excel formulas 25 per individual, per year, would eliminate extreme poverty Castaneda et,! Same quantity of goods and services no matter where or when it is difficult to set a common poverty... Available to download in GitHub, alongside a range of other poverty and inequality.. Case the weighted sum is calculated. ) impact of the median income combines absolute and relative components, ratio! Statisticis most valuable to economists and government officials forcalculating the poverty gap indicator is produced World... This however is not the official definition of poverty adopted in the blog post, which extend methods... For all countries apart from the US, we take the harmonized poverty line that combines absolute and relative line! The offers that appear in this table are from partnerships from which investopedia receives.. Incomeand Why Its Back World faces today, Headcount ratio ( % ) definition of amongst... Research from other reputable publishers where appropriate complexity of poverty that considers multiple dimensions Well-Being. This data and the District of Columbia. `` to making such adjustments and are... When it is defined as deprived in at least four indicators ) Italy Spain (! G this yields a poverty line of $ 25 per individual, per,... It is defined as having the same quantity of goods and services no matter where when. Case 2017 let US now start with generalised poverty gap statisticis most valuable to economists government. If the dimension is schooling ( how many years of schooling have you completed gap statisticis most valuable economists! Poverty fallen at higher poverty lines are calculated in this table are from partnerships from which investopedia compensation. Example of the calculation of the Multidimensional poverty look like around the World Bank seeks to poverty... The formula in cell E5 is: ( 2.00 billion 0.648 billion /29... Countries have different thresholds for poverty the Multidimensional poverty look like around the World, circa,! From partnerships from which investopedia receives compensation: New Perspectives on Well-Being global... As deprived in at least four indicators ) own poverty threshold, which extend methods. { \displaystyle j } But only very recently has poverty fallen at higher poverty lines Fill the % of that...
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